60-second revision
- Stone Ages: Palaeolithic (hunter-gatherers), Mesolithic (microliths), Neolithic (farming, polished tools), then Chalcolithic (copper + stone).
- Mehrgarh (near the Bolan Pass, Pakistan) has some of the earliest evidence of farming and herding in the subcontinent.
- Burzahom (Kashmir): Neolithic pit dwellings; dogs buried with their masters.
- Mature Harappan phase: c. 2600–1900 BCE; a Bronze Age culture with no iron.
- Harappa found by Daya Ram Sahni (1921); Mohenjo-daro by R. D. Banerji (1922).
- Mohenjo-daro: Great Bath, Dancing Girl bronze, Pashupati seal. Lothal: dockyard. Kalibangan: ploughed field and fire altars.
- Dholavira (Kachchh, Gujarat): water reservoirs; World Heritage Site since 2021.
- The Indus script is still undeciphered.
The Stone Ages
Indian prehistory is divided by the tools people used. Exams test the order of the ages, one typical feature of each, and one or two famous sites. Dates are approximate and are usually counted in "years ago".
| Age | Rough time | Key features | Sites to remember |
|---|---|---|---|
| Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) | c. 2 million to 12,000 years ago | Hunter-gatherers; chipped stone tools such as hand axes and cleavers; use of rock shelters | Hunsgi (Karnataka), Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu), Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) |
| Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) | c. 12,000 to 10,000 years ago | Microliths fixed on handles; start of animal domestication | Bagor (Rajasthan), Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh) |
| Neolithic (New Stone Age) | from c. 10,000 years ago | Farming, herding, polished stone tools, pottery, settled villages | Mehrgarh (Pakistan), Burzahom and Gufkral (Kashmir), Chirand (Bihar), Koldihwa (Uttar Pradesh) |
| Chalcolithic | after the Neolithic | Copper used alongside stone; painted pottery; village cultures | Ahar (Rajasthan), Jorwe and Inamgaon (Maharashtra) |
Burzahom stands out: its earliest people lived in pits dug into the ground, and some graves contain dogs buried with their masters. Mehrgarh near the Bolan Pass is among the earliest farming villages of the subcontinent, with wheat, barley, sheep and goats.
The Harappan (Indus Valley) civilisation
The Harappan civilisation is named after Harappa, the first site to be excavated. Its mature urban phase lasted roughly from 2600 to 1900 BCE. It was a Bronze Age culture: people used copper and bronze, and iron was unknown. Harappa was dug by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921 and Mohenjo-daro by R. D. Banerji in 1922, when Sir John Marshall was Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India.
Important sites and what they are known for
| Site | Where | Known for |
|---|---|---|
| Harappa | Punjab (Pakistan), on the Ravi | First site excavated (1921); granaries; rows of workers' quarters |
| Mohenjo-daro | Sindh (Pakistan), on the Indus | Great Bath, large granary, bronze Dancing Girl, Pashupati seal, bearded "priest-king" bust |
| Chanhudaro | Sindh (Pakistan) | Bead-making workshops; no fortified citadel |
| Kalibangan | Rajasthan, on the Ghaggar | Ploughed field, fire altars |
| Lothal | Gujarat | Dockyard, bead-making |
| Dholavira | Kachchh, Gujarat | Water reservoirs, three-part city, large signboard inscription; World Heritage Site 2021 |
| Banawali | Haryana | Terracotta model of a plough |
| Rakhigarhi | Haryana | One of the largest Harappan sites in India |
| Ropar | Punjab (India), on the Sutlej | One of the first Harappan sites dug after Independence |
| Alamgirpur | Uttar Pradesh, on the Hindon | Easternmost major site |
| Shortugai | Afghanistan | Trading outpost, probably for lapis lazuli |
Town planning and daily life
- Cities usually had a raised citadel on the west and a larger lower town on the east.
- Streets ran in a rough grid; houses were made of baked bricks of standard proportions (about 1:2:4).
- Covered drains ran along the streets — one of the best drainage systems of the ancient world.
- Standardised cubical stone weights; small weights followed a binary pattern (1, 2, 4, 8...).
- Seals, mostly of steatite, carry animal figures (the "unicorn" is the most common) and short inscriptions.
- The script is pictographic, generally written right to left, and has not been deciphered.
Economy and religion
Farmers grew wheat, barley, peas, sesame and cotton; Harappan cotton is among the earliest known anywhere. Craftspeople made beads of carnelian, shell ornaments, copper and bronze tools and painted pottery. Harappan seals have turned up in Mesopotamia, whose texts mention a land called Meluhha, generally identified with the Indus region.
No temple has been identified. Terracotta female figurines are read as a mother goddess cult. The Pashupati seal from Mohenjo-daro shows a seated figure surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros and a buffalo, often called "proto-Shiva". Fire altars at Kalibangan and Lothal suggest fire rituals.
Decline
By about 1900 BCE the big cities were abandoned and people moved to smaller villages. Suggested causes include shifts in river courses, the drying of the Ghaggar-Hakra, floods, climate change and deforestation. The old idea of an "Aryan invasion" destroying the cities is no longer accepted by most historians.
Test yourself: 10 questions, 40 s each
Every answer is explained. Free, no sign-up.
Start the quiz