60-second revision
- Rigveda: 10 mandalas, 1,028 hymns; composed c. 1500–1000 BCE. Later Vedic period: c. 1000–600 BCE.
- Gayatri mantra (to Savitri) is in the 3rd mandala; the Purusha Sukta (four varnas) is in the 10th.
- Indra has the most Rigvedic hymns, followed by Agni.
- Battle of Ten Kings on the Parushni (Ravi): Sudas of the Bharata clan won.
- Samaveda = melodies; Yajurveda = sacrificial formulas; Atharvaveda = charms, spells and remedies.
- "Satyameva Jayate" comes from the Mundaka Upanishad.
- Later Vedic: iron (krishna ayas), Painted Grey Ware, gotra, women excluded from the sabha.
- Six Vedangas: Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chhanda, Jyotisha.
Sources and dates
The Vedic age takes its name from the Vedas, the oldest texts in an Indo-European language from India. They were composed in early Sanskrit and passed on orally for centuries. Historians divide the period into the early or Rigvedic phase (c. 1500–1000 BCE), centred in the land of seven rivers (Sapta Sindhu, the Punjab region), and the later Vedic phase (c. 1000–600 BCE), when settlement moved east into the Ganga-Yamuna doab.
Vedic literature at a glance
| Text | What it contains | Remember |
|---|---|---|
| Rigveda | Hymns of praise to gods | 10 mandalas, 1,028 hymns; Gayatri mantra (mandala 3); Purusha Sukta (mandala 10); mandala 9 is devoted to Soma |
| Samaveda | Rigvedic verses set to melody for singing | Seen as the root of Indian music |
| Yajurveda | Formulas for performing sacrifices | Partly in prose; Shukla (white) and Krishna (black) branches |
| Atharvaveda | Charms, spells, remedies | Window into popular beliefs and early medicine |
| Brahmanas | Explanations of rituals, in prose | e.g. Shatapatha Brahmana |
| Aranyakas | "Forest texts" on the meaning of ritual | Bridge between ritual and philosophy |
| Upanishads | Philosophy: atman, brahman, karma, rebirth | Called Vedanta, "end of the Vedas"; "Satyameva Jayate" from the Mundaka |
Six Vedangas ("limbs of the Veda") helped preserve and use the texts: Shiksha (phonetics), Kalpa (ritual), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Chhanda (metre) and Jyotisha (astronomy).
Rigvedic rivers
| Rigvedic name | Modern name |
|---|---|
| Sindhu | Indus |
| Vitasta | Jhelum |
| Asikni | Chenab |
| Parushni | Ravi |
| Vipas | Beas |
| Shutudri | Sutlej |
| Gomati | Gomal |
| Kubha | Kabul |
The Saraswati is praised as the best of rivers. The Battle of Ten Kings, the best-known Rigvedic war, was won by Sudas of the Bharata clan on the Parushni.
Rigvedic vs later Vedic life
| Aspect | Rigvedic (early) | Later Vedic |
|---|---|---|
| Region | Punjab, the land of seven rivers | Ganga-Yamuna doab and beyond |
| Polity | Tribal chief (rajan); assemblies: sabha, samiti, vidatha, gana | Bigger kingdoms (janapadas); grand sacrifices such as Rajasuya, Ashvamedha, Vajapeya |
| Economy | Mainly pastoral; cattle as wealth; bali a voluntary offering | Settled farming; iron (krishna or shyama ayas); bali becomes a regular tax |
| Society | Varna lines loose; women attended assemblies | Varna becomes rigid; gotra appears; women excluded from the sabha |
| Religion | Indra, Agni, Varuna, Soma; simple prayers and offerings | Prajapati, Vishnu, Rudra rise; elaborate rituals; Upanishadic reaction |
| Pottery | Not clearly identified | Painted Grey Ware |
Important officials of the early period were the purohita (priest), senani (army chief) and gramani (village head). Words reveal the pastoral life: a wealthy man was gomat, "one who has cattle", and war was gavishti, "search for cows". The cow was called aghanya, "not to be killed".
In the later Vedic period the king's power grew as tribes merged into territorial kingdoms such as Kuru and Panchala. Kings performed grand sacrifices to show their status: the Rajasuya conferred supreme royal power, the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) asserted control over all the lands the horse roamed, and the Vajapeya included a chariot race the king was made to win. Officials called ratnins helped run the kingdom, and taxes were now collected regularly, though there was still no standing army.
Gods
- Indra — war god and rain giver, called Purandara (breaker of forts); about 250 hymns, the most of any god.
- Agni — fire god, the messenger between people and gods; about 200 hymns.
- Varuna — upholder of rita, the natural and moral order.
- Soma — god of a sacred drink; the whole ninth mandala is devoted to him.
Ashramas and philosophy
Later Vedic texts speak of only three ashramas or life stages; the fourth was established only in post-Vedic times, completing the set: brahmacharya (student), grihastha (householder), vanaprastha (forest dweller) and sannyasa (renunciation). Later thinkers grouped Indian philosophy into six schools (darshanas).
| School | Founder (traditional) |
|---|---|
| Nyaya | Gautama |
| Vaisheshika | Kanada |
| Sankhya | Kapila |
| Yoga | Patanjali |
| Purva Mimamsa | Jaimini |
| Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta) | Badarayana |
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