60-second revision
- Kharif: sown with the monsoon (rice, maize, cotton, jute, soybean, groundnut); rabi: sown in winter (wheat, gram, mustard, barley).
- Zaid: short summer season — watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, fodder.
- Jhum = shifting cultivation in the north-eastern hills.
- Jute = golden fibre (delta floodplains); cotton = black soil, ~210 frost-free days.
- White Revolution = milk (Operation Flood, Verghese Kurien); Blue = fish; Yellow = oilseeds.
- Tank irrigation dominates in the peninsula; canals in the northern plains; wells and tube wells are the largest source overall.
- Indira Gandhi Canal starts at Harike barrage (Sutlej–Beas confluence).
Cropping seasons
| Season | Sowing | Harvest | Main crops |
|---|---|---|---|
| Kharif | With the onset of the monsoon (June–July) | September–October | Rice, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut, soybean |
| Rabi | October–December | April–June | Wheat, barley, peas, gram, mustard |
| Zaid | Between rabi harvest and kharif sowing (summer) | Short season | Watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables, fodder crops |
Types of farming
- Primitive subsistence farming: small patches, simple tools, family labour. Includes shifting cultivation (slash and burn), called jhum in the north-eastern hill states.
- Intensive subsistence farming: high use of labour and inputs on small holdings in densely populated areas.
- Commercial farming: high inputs (HYV seeds, fertilisers, machinery) for sale; plantations of tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane and banana are a type of commercial farming.
Major crops and their needs
| Crop | Conditions | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Rice | High temperature, high humidity, rainfall above about 100 cm (or irrigation) | Kharif crop; irrigation has spread it to Punjab and Haryana |
| Wheat | Cool growing season, bright sunshine at ripening, 50–75 cm rain | Rabi crop of the north and north-west |
| Millets (jowar, bajra, ragi) | Grow in dry areas and poorer soils | Highly nutritious; ragi is rich in iron and calcium |
| Cotton | Black soil, high temperature, light rain, about 210 frost-free days | Kharif crop of the Deccan |
| Jute | Fertile, well-drained floodplain soil renewed each year, high temperature | Golden fibre; West Bengal and the delta |
| Tea | Warm, moist, frost-free climate, frequent showers, well-drained hill slopes | Labour-intensive plantation crop; Assam and the Darjeeling hills |
| Coffee | Warm and moist with shade, hill slopes | Arabica variety, first grown in the Baba Budan hills; Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu |
| Rubber | Moist, humid equatorial-type climate, rainfall above 200 cm | Kerala is the main area |
Agricultural revolutions
| Revolution | Related to |
|---|---|
| Green Revolution (1960s) | Wheat and rice through HYV seeds, fertilisers and irrigation; Punjab, Haryana, western UP |
| White Revolution (Operation Flood, from 1970) | Milk; dairy cooperatives on the Anand model led by Dr Verghese Kurien |
| Blue Revolution | Fish and aquaculture |
| Yellow Revolution | Oilseeds |
Irrigation
India's rainfall is seasonal and uneven, so irrigation is essential for multiple cropping. The method used depends on relief, rock type and water availability.
| Method | Where common | Why |
|---|---|---|
| Wells and tube wells | Northern plains, Gujarat, Rajasthan and many other states — the largest source overall | Soft alluvium and a high water table make wells easy to dig |
| Canals | Punjab, Haryana, UP, and deltas of the east coast | Perennial rivers and flat land |
| Tanks | Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana | Hard rock, uneven surface and seasonal rivers make storing rainwater the best option |
| Drip and sprinkler (micro-irrigation) | Water-scarce areas, orchards, sandy soils | Save water; drip delivers water to the roots, sprinklers spray it and work on uneven land |
The Indira Gandhi Canal, one of the largest canal systems in India, starts at the Harike barrage near the confluence of the Sutlej and Beas in Punjab and carries water into western Rajasthan, turning parts of the Thar into farmland. Over-irrigation, however, has caused waterlogging and salinity in some command areas.
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