60-second revision
- 42nd Amendment (1976): Article 48A (State's duty), Article 51A(g) (citizens' duty); forests and wildlife moved to the Concurrent List.
- WPA 1972, Water Act 1974 (created CPCB), Forest (Conservation) Act 1980, Air Act 1981, EPA 1986 (after Bhopal).
- Biological Diversity Act 2002 set up the NBA (Chennai), State Biodiversity Boards, BMCs; NGT Act 2010.
- Ramsar 1971 (wetlands), CITES 1973 (trade in wildlife), CMS/Bonn 1979 (migratory species).
- Vienna 1985 + Montreal 1987 (ozone); Kigali 2016 adds HFC phase-down.
- Rio 1992 gave UNFCCC, CBD and Agenda 21; Kyoto 1997; Paris 2015.
- UNEP (1972, Nairobi); IPCC (1988, by WMO and UNEP); IUCN (1948, Gland).
Constitutional provisions
- Article 48A (Directive Principle): the State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.
- Article 51A(g) (Fundamental Duty): every citizen must protect and improve the natural environment, including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife, and have compassion for living creatures.
- Both were added by the 42nd Amendment (1976), which also moved 'forests' and 'protection of wild animals and birds' from the State List to the Concurrent List.
- Article 21 (right to life) has been interpreted by the Supreme Court to include the right to a clean and healthy environment.
Major environmental laws of India
| Act | Key points |
|---|---|
| Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 | Protected areas, hunting ban, schedules of protected species; 2006 amendment created the NTCA; a 2022 amendment cut the schedules from six to four and aligned the law with CITES |
| Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 | First major pollution law; created the Central and State Pollution Control Boards |
| Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 | Centre's prior approval needed to divert forest land; renamed the Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam by a 2023 amendment |
| Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 | Extended the pollution boards' role to air |
| Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 | Umbrella law after the Bhopal tragedy; empowers the Centre to set standards, regulate hazardous substances and order closures; basis for EIA notifications and coastal regulation zones |
| Biological Diversity Act, 2002 | Implements the CBD in India; three tiers: National Biodiversity Authority (Chennai), State Biodiversity Boards, local Biodiversity Management Committees (which keep People's Biodiversity Registers) |
| Forest Rights Act, 2006 | Recognises the forest rights of Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers |
| National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 | Set up the NGT for speedy environmental justice; principal bench in New Delhi |
Key institutions
| Body | Nature |
|---|---|
| Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) | Nodal ministry; 'Climate Change' was added to its name in 2014 |
| Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) | Statutory body set up under the Water Act, 1974; also functions under the Air Act |
| National Green Tribunal (NGT) | Statutory quasi-judicial body under the NGT Act, 2010 |
| National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) | Statutory body under the Biological Diversity Act, 2002; set up in 2003 at Chennai |
| National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) | Statutory body under the 2006 amendment to the Wild Life (Protection) Act |
International conventions — the timeline
| Year | Convention / event | Subject |
|---|---|---|
| 1971 | Ramsar Convention (Ramsar, Iran) | Wetlands of international importance |
| 1972 | Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment | First UN environment conference; led to UNEP (Nairobi); 5 June became World Environment Day |
| 1973 | CITES (Washington) | International trade in endangered wild animals and plants |
| 1979 | CMS or Bonn Convention | Migratory species of wild animals |
| 1985 / 1987 | Vienna Convention / Montreal Protocol | Protection of the ozone layer; phase-out of CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances |
| 1989 | Basel Convention | Transboundary movement of hazardous wastes |
| 1992 | Rio Earth Summit (UNCED) | Produced the UNFCCC, the CBD, Agenda 21 and forest principles; UNCCD on desertification followed in 1994 |
| 1997 | Kyoto Protocol (under UNFCCC) | Binding emission cuts for developed countries; came into force in 2005 |
| 1998 | Rotterdam Convention | Prior informed consent for trade in hazardous chemicals and pesticides |
| 2000 | Cartagena Protocol (under CBD) | Biosafety — living modified organisms |
| 2001 | Stockholm Convention | Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) |
| 2010 | Nagoya Protocol (under CBD) | Access to genetic resources and fair benefit-sharing |
| 2013 | Minamata Convention | Mercury |
| 2015 | Paris Agreement (COP21, UNFCCC) | Hold warming well below 2 degrees C and pursue 1.5 degrees C; countries submit Nationally Determined Contributions |
| 2016 | Kigali Amendment (Montreal Protocol) | Phase-down of HFCs |
Global bodies
- UNEP: established in 1972 after Stockholm; headquarters Nairobi, Kenya.
- IPCC: set up in 1988 by the WMO and UNEP to assess climate science; its Assessment Reports guide negotiations.
- IUCN: founded in 1948; headquarters Gland, Switzerland; publishes the Red List.
- Global Environment Facility (GEF): set up in 1991; funds projects under several conventions.
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