60-second revision
- RTI Act, 2005: reply within 30 days; 48 hours if life or liberty is involved.
- Section 24 of RTI exempts listed intelligence and security bodies, except for corruption and human rights violations.
- RTE Act, 2009: free and compulsory education for ages 6–14; 25% entry-level seats in private unaided schools for weaker sections.
- Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016: 21 disabilities; 4% reservation in government jobs.
- Vishaka (1997) guidelines became the POSH Act, 2013; Internal Committee where there are 10 or more employees.
- Puttaswamy (2017): privacy is a Fundamental Right. NALSA (2014): transgender persons recognised as a third gender.
- Forest Rights Act, 2006: the Gram Sabha starts the process of recognising rights.
- Social audit = the community checks a scheme's implementation itself; citizen's charters state service standards.
Why rights-based laws matter
Since the 1990s India has turned many welfare goals into legal rights that citizens can claim — information, education, protection from harassment, forest rights. UPSC's "governance" syllabus tests these laws, the judgments behind them and the tools used to make government accountable. This note sticks to the stable core of each law.
Right to Information Act, 2005
- Any citizen can ask a public authority for information without giving a reason.
- The Public Information Officer must reply within 30 days; within 48 hours if the information concerns the life or liberty of a person. Five extra days are allowed if the request goes through an Assistant PIO.
- Section 4 requires public authorities to publish key information on their own (proactive disclosure).
- Section 8 lists exemptions, such as information affecting sovereignty and security, cabinet papers before a decision, and certain personal information.
- Section 24: intelligence and security organisations listed in the Second Schedule are outside the Act, except for information on corruption and human rights violations.
- Appeals go to a first appellate officer and then to the Central or State Information Commission, both statutory bodies under the Act.
Right to Education Act, 2009
- Gives effect to Article 21A (added by the 86th Amendment, 2002): free and compulsory education for every child aged 6 to 14.
- Private unaided schools must reserve 25% of seats at the entry level for children from weaker and disadvantaged groups (Section 12(1)(c)); the government reimburses the cost.
- Prohibits capitation fees, screening of children for admission, and physical punishment and mental harassment.
- Lays down norms for pupil–teacher ratio, buildings and teacher qualifications; schools need recognition.
Laws for specific groups
| Law | Core points |
|---|---|
| SC and ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 | Defines atrocities against SCs and STs as offences; special courts for speedy trial |
| Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 | Civil remedies such as protection and residence orders; covers physical, sexual, verbal, emotional and economic abuse |
| POCSO Act, 2012 | Protects children (below 18) from sexual offences; child-friendly procedures and special courts |
| POSH Act, 2013 | Sexual harassment at the workplace; employers with 10 or more employees must set up an Internal Committee; a Local Committee at district level covers others |
| Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 | Replaced the 1995 Act; specified disabilities raised from 7 to 21; 4% reservation in government jobs and 5% in government-funded higher education |
| Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019 | Certificate of identity issued by the District Magistrate; bars discrimination in education, jobs and healthcare. Amended in 2026 to tighten who is covered and add a medical board to the certificate process |
| Consumer Protection Act, 2019 | Created the Central Consumer Protection Authority; covers e-commerce and product liability |
Forest Rights Act, 2006
The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 recognises individual rights (land under cultivation) and community rights (minor forest produce, grazing, community forest resources) of forest-dwelling communities. The Gram Sabha starts the process by receiving and verifying claims; committees at sub-divisional and district level then decide. It seeks to correct the historical injustice of not recording these rights.
Judgments that expanded rights
| Case | Year | Outcome |
|---|---|---|
| Maneka Gandhi v Union of India | 1978 | Procedure under Article 21 must be just, fair and reasonable; Articles 14, 19 and 21 read together |
| Vishaka v State of Rajasthan | 1997 | Guidelines against sexual harassment at the workplace, later replaced by the POSH Act, 2013 |
| NALSA v Union of India | 2014 | Transgender persons recognised as a third gender with Fundamental Rights |
| K. S. Puttaswamy v Union of India | 2017 | Nine-judge bench: right to privacy is a Fundamental Right under Article 21 and Part III |
| Navtej Singh Johar v Union of India | 2018 | Decriminalised consensual same-sex relations between adults (read down Section 377 IPC) |
Tools of accountable governance
- Social audit: the community and beneficiaries themselves check how a scheme was carried out — records are read out and verified in a public meeting, often the Gram Sabha. It differs from a financial audit by the CAG.
- Citizen's charter: a public document in which an office states its services, standards, timelines and grievance redress. The idea started in the United Kingdom in 1991; India began adopting charters in 1997. Most charters are not legally enforceable.
- E-governance and direct benefit transfer reduce middlemen; grievance portals let citizens track complaints.
- Ombudsman bodies such as the Lokpal and state Lokayuktas inquire into corruption complaints against public servants.
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